Introduction
Jainism is one
of the oldest religions of the world. It can be regarded as the offshoot of
Brahmanism in India during the 6th century BC, with the initiation
of Tirthankaras among whom Mahavira
was said to be the last and the 24th
Tirthankaras. This religion teaches
copious moral and ethical way of life. However in this paper, putting aside all
other aspects of it, we will deal with the Jaina scriptures and other important
practices.
The canonization of Jaina
Scriptures
According to
Jaina traditions, Jainism itself was much older than Mahavira, it is evident
that not all canonical works are attributable to this 24th Tirthankaras. Certainly, the discourses delivered
by him are considered to be extremely significant and find a place in the
canons and reflect the Jaina tradition in all respects.[1]
Mahavir’s preaching were orally compiled by his immediate followers in Jain
scriptures known as Jain Agam (Agamas) or Agam Sutras that consist of many texts. Around 500 AD, that was one
thousand years after the death of Mahavira, the Jain Acharyas realized that it was difficult to keep memorizing the
entire Jain literature compiled by many scholars of the past and present. In
fact, significant knowledge was already lost and the rest was polluted with
modifications and mistakes. Hence, they decided to document the Jain literature
as known to them. The Agam Sutras
were recorded on leafy papers (Tadpatris).[2]
The
difference between Digambara
and Svetambara traditions
The
two major denominations of Jainism, namely the Digambara and the Svetambara had
differences in their acceptance of the validity of the documented Jaina
scriptures and literatures. The Svetambara Jains have accepted these Sutras
as an authentic version of Mahavir’s teaching. However, the Digambara Jains did not accepted them as
authentic, rather they follow the two main texts viz. Shatkhans Agam and Kasay Pahud,
and Four Anuyogas that consists about
20 texts written by great Acharyas
during 100 to 800 AD.[3]
At the same time, both the sects consider the Jaina classic Tattvarthadhigama-Sutra as most
authoritative. The author of the work was probably a Svetambara, but the Digambaras
also regard it as one of their primary source books.[4]
The Svetambara traditions on
Jaina scriptures - Angas and Angabahyas
Jains have number of scriptures. These
sacred scriptures, as we have cited above, are called Agamas (Agam) or Ganipitakas.
These scriptures are classified into two groups as the following:[5]
(i) The Angas are twelve in number. The first eleven are the preservations
of Mahavira’s teachings and discourses which were learned by the eleven Ganadharas or the chief disciples of
Mahavira. The twelfth Anga was Drstiveda, a section which contained
fourteen Purvas existed even before
the time of Mahavira. They contained the original doctrines of the Tirthankaras. These twelve Angas and fourteen Purvas were learned by the disciples from their master.
Both the denomination accepted that
the last four among the fourteen Purvas
were lost. The Digambaras also maintain
that the eleven Angas were lost in
course of time. But the Svetambaras hold
that though the twelfth Anga was
lost, the remaining eleven Angas are
still available. This controversy led to the Council of Vallabhi at Gujarat in
the 6th century BC, in which the Jaina scriptures were finally
redacted and put into a written form.
(ii) The Angabahyas are collection of thirty four texts which were not in
the Angas. The Angabahyas originate
not with the Ganadharas but with the
later Acharyas of a subsequent
period. They are arranged in five group viz. 12 Upangas, 6 Chedasutras, 4
Mulasutras, 10 Prakirnakasutras and 2 Culikasutras.
Thus,
it appears that the extent canon of the Svetambaras
consists of 45 texts such as 11 Angas
and 34 texts belonging to Angabahyas.
The Digambaras traditions on Jaina scriptures
– Shatkhand-agam, Kasay-pahud, and Anuyogas
The Digambaras
reject the authenticity of these works and regarded that the original texts
have been lost forever. But they have number of important texts of later
periods, which also have canonical status.[6]
These comprised of the two main texts like:[7]
(i) Shatkhand-agam
written by two Jain Acharyas, Pushpadant
and Bhutabali around 160 AD. They
used the second Purva as a basis for
this scripture. It contains six volumes.
(ii) Kashay-pahud written around 180 AD by Acharya Gunadhara. The fifth Purva was used as a basis.
(iii) Four Anuyogas which are classified as; first, Pratham-anuyoga which includes legendary works to which belong the Puranas of the Digambaras; second, Karan-anuyoga
containing treatises on ancient sciences like cosmology and astronomy; third, Dravy-anuyoga that contains
philosophical works; and fourth, Charan-anuyoga
which consists of works on rituals.[8]
The main message of
Jaina scriptures
All these Jaina canonical texts are in Prakrit or Ardhamagadhi language.[9]
They are the sources of Jaina religion, ethics, philosophy and mythology. The
composition of Jaina scripture has a specific objective of showing the listener
the path of everlasting bliss and nirvana. The Angam Sutras teach the everlasting truth about behavior, equanimity,
universal affection and friendship; and the everlasting truths on thinking,
namely the principle of relativity, principle on non-one-sided-ness and many
divine things including great reverence for all forms of life, soul, karma,
cosmos, strict codes of asceticism, rules for householders, compassion, ahimsa,
and non-possessiveness.[10]
Important Practices
The Jains does
not recognize a Supreme Creator God. They have their own worship, practices and
lot of ceremonies by which they make alive their religious life. Therefore,
questions were often asked that to whom they offer worship, what is the meaning
of worship, and religious practices for them. We will briefly look into some of
the important religious practices of Jainism.
Worship[11]
According to Jaina tradition, everybody
reaps what s/he sows. One enjoys the fruits of good deeds and suffers from the
result of bad ones automatically in accordance with the inexorable law of
nature, without the intervention of any supernatural agency. The Panchaparamesthins or the ‘Five Great
Ones’ are the main objects of worship. They are Arhata, Siddha, Acharya, Upadhyaya and Sadhu.
Arhatas
and
Siddhas are the 24 Tirthankaras and the Jinas
who have attained by their own efforts absolute purity and perfection,
omniscience and omnipotence and have reached the highest godhead, after leaving
their bodies in the world. All the perfected souls are worshipped. But they do
not answer human’s prayer, worship and invocation; nor do they stand in need of
such worship. However, they are the ones who by their own efforts found a way
to nirvana and reached that goal. By worshipping them and contemplating their
glorious attainments, one is inspired by their examples to follow the path they
have trodden. Worship for Jain is thus adoration rather than prayer or
petition. One has to work out one’s own salvation, no external help is needed
nor is it available. The Acharya, Upadhyaya
and Sadhu are the true ascetic
aspirants and monks. They constitute the true gurus, religious preceptors and
spiritual guides and hence are adorable and objects of worship and veneration.
So, majority of the Jaina laity, contrary to the doctrinal position worship the
Tirthankaras beseeching blessings
from them.
Besides,
many gods and goddesses who possess supernatural powers, have gradually found
their way into Jainism. Their images are found in Jain temples but always in
inferior place and position to Tirthankaras.
The most popular among them are Sarasvati, Lakshmi, Ambika, Dharanedra,
Padmavati and Ganesha.
Temple rituals[12]
The images of Tirthankaras constitute the primary religious activities of the
Jains. The image of that particular Tirthankara
to whom the temple is dedicated is installed at the inner chamber of the
temple, with the image of other Tirthankaras
in the surrounding chambers. There are paintings of Gods and Goddesses in
pillars, walls, ceilings, etc. In every temple, Siddha-chakra or saint-wheel is kept which is saluted daily. The
worship had a dual respect: Dravya Puja
and Bhava Puja.
In the Digambara temples, worship is conducted by a Jaina himself. But in Svetambara temple, even non-Jain can
perform it. The form of worship is very similar to that of the Hindu temple.
Worship essence is more individualistic than corporate.
The
temple in Jain religion is no doubt very important but not exclusive. Many
homes have their own shrines with small Jina-images. In the meantime, some
Jaina sects like Sthanakvasis do not favour temple building. They totally
reject image worship but pay more attention to meditation.
Holy days and Festivals
The Jains have a very rich a life
of festivals, rites and holy days. These are especially connected with the
anniversaries of the births and deaths of the Tirthankaras,[13]
marked by fasts, worshipping the Jinas, recitation of hymns and sacred texts,
holding religious discourses, almsgiving, etc. These festivals are also
characterized by renunciation, austerities, meditation and expressing devotion
for the Paramatma. Some important
days of festivals are:[14]
(i) Paryusana
Parva, celebrated for 8-10 days during monsoon. Even lay people undertake
fasts strictly. Those people who observed fasts are specially honoured. Sermons
and ceremonies are done in the temple.
(ii) Samvatsari,
the last day of Paryusana and the
closing day of Jaina year. All Jains are required to fast on this day. They
confess sins and ask forgiveness each other, and thus start a new year with
good-will and charity.
(iii) Aksayarttiya,
observed on the third day of Vaisakha
(may-june) and is celebrated mainly by Svetambaras.
It is observed by offering sugarcane juice to those who fasts throughout the
year. It also reminds them that the great spiritual benefits which they can
gain through proper giving of alms to members of ascetic order.
(iv) Mahavira
Jayanti, the birth anniversary of Mahavira which is celebrated with great
pomp and enthusiasm. Temples are decorated, processions are taken out, meetings
are held, Mahavira’s message is explained to all.
(v) Diwali/Deepawali,
celebrated symbolically by lightning lamps from morning by worshipping Mahavira till late in the night. Though it is a Hindu festival but
celebrated because Mahavira attained nirvana on this day.
(vi) New Year, the next day of Diwali and is the occasion for joyful
gatherings.
(vii) Gyan
Panchami, the fifth day of the New Year. The day of knowledge when people
impart knowledge from Holy Scriptures, and worshipped with devotion.
(viii) Paush
Dashami, celebrated as the birthday of 23rd
Tirthankara- Parshvanath. It is observed by continuous fasting for 3 days,
achieving divine welfare by recitation and meditation. A grand fair takes place
in Sankheswar which is a sacred place
for Jains.
(ix)
Maun-Agiyaras, observed in November/December when a day of total silence
and fasting is kept and meditation is directed towards the five holy beings,
monk, teacher, religious leader, arhat
and siddha.
(x) Navapad Oli, falling twice in a year
(march/april and September/october), the nine day Oli period of semi-fasting is observed when Jains take only meal a
day of very plain food.
Pujas[15]
Besides holy days and festivals, the
Jains but not of all observed eight kinds of daily puja which has specific significance such as Jal (water) puja, Chandan (sandal-wood) puja, Pushpa (flower) puja, Dhup (incense) puja, Deepak (candle) puja, Akshat (rice) puja, Naivedya (sweet) puja
and Fal (fruit) puja.
Special pujas also occupies vital position in Jain religious life. They
are-
(i) Snatra
mahotsav/puja performed usually every day mostly in Jain temples, performed
oblations, making offerings and worshipped to the image of Tirthankaras. It is also observed to celebrate new business, etc. Music,
songs and dances are involved.
(ii) Atthai
Mahotsav, the festivals of eight days. Many devotional and religious
activities like cleaning and decorating temples; offering prayers with songs,
music and dances; chanting of hymns;
recitation of songs are arranged in the temples.
(iii)
Panch Kalyanak puja, performed to commemorates the five great events of Tirthankaras’s life viz. conception,
birth, renunciation, nirvana and moskh. It is also observed on any good
event.
(iv) Antaray
Karma puja, the eight pujas,
performing by which people will be able to remove obstacle.
(v) Pujan,
performed with a lengthy rite occasionally during new temple opening
ceremony, after someone’s special penance like Varshitap, etc.
Pilgrimages to Holy Places
Visiting holy places is an act of
religious merit for the Jains. They considers it as an important goal of their
life to make atleast one visit to one or more of the sacred places. There are
numerous centre of pilgrimage scattered all over India which are categorized
into three:[16]
(i)
Kalyanka Ksetras, the places
associated with the birth and other auspicious events in the life of the Tirthankaras.
(ii)
Nirvanaksetras, from where the Tirthankaras or other saints left the
embodied state and attained nirvana.
(iii)
Atisayaksetras, where miraculous
events associated with the lives of great monks are said to have occurred.
Here,
Upashray which is the places of abode
for religious priests, monks and nuns maybe included.
These places of pilgrims are
situated either on the peaks of the mountains or on other locations. In these
places, pilgrims usually does Darshan,
Vandan as Puja and Namaskars.[17]
Large scale pilgrimage is often organized and sponsored by some wealthy
members of the community. Pilgrimage to distant sacred places involves huge
cost, this prohibits many to undertake religious journey. Therefore, who
finances such mass pilgrimages is accorded with great reverence.[18]
Some of the important destinations
of Jain pilgrimage are:[19]
Dilwara
temples in Mount Abu of Rajasthan dating back to 11th-13th
century AD. A group of 863 Palitana temples
in Shetrunjaya/Shiddhagiri hills of
Gujarat. Temple complex in Aravali ranges
in Ranakpur of Rajasthan. A group of
medieval temples in Khajuraho of
Madhya Pradesh. Jalmandir temple in Pavapuri
near Patna in the south of Bihar. Jain temple in Sammet Sikhar/Paresnath hill in Hazaribagh
of Bengal. Numerous temples in Girnar
hills in Saurashtra, modern Kathiawad. Rajgir/Rajagriha- the capital
of Magadha which had long connection with Mahavira. Mount Kailash in Himalayas, Benares,
Ayodhya and Champapur are also
regarded as holy places to Jains.
Samskaras
Samskara
means ceremonies connected with the important events in the life of an
individual. Sixteen Samskaras are
practiced by the Jains. It appears that these ceremonies had been taken from
Hinduism and are clearly Brahmanical,
even Hindu Brahmins are called to perform it. But they are adapted to the Jaina
way of life and their meaning is certainly not Hindu. Of the sixteen Samskaras, the most commonly celebrated
are birth, marriage and death ceremonies. It does not include offering meals
for the soul as they believe that anything can be done for the departed souls. All
these rites are accompanied by deva puja
or worship of the Jinas, recitation of sacred hymn and scriptures.[20]
Fasting and Sallekhana[21]
This is an extra ordinary practice
of Jains in which the ritual of voluntary death is performed under the close
supervision of mendicant teachers, even the local community is well aware of
when Sallekhana is performed. But
this type of fasting to death can be resorted only when one becomes incapable
of observing the vows or vratas.
Therefore, Sallekhana is recommended
only when an individual Jain is confronted with unavoidable calamity, famine,
old age and terminal illness; all of which make the practice of spiritual
exercises impossible. In such condition, an individual Jaina approaches a
mendicant teacher and expresses his desire to take the vow of Sallekhana. The Jainas distinguish this
kind of death from suicide which they regard sinful.
The teacher will give necessary admonitions to the one
who will perform Sallekhana. He
should confess all misdeeds, ask for forgiveness, forgive all others, putting
aside all attachment and aversion, completely free from all passions, and then
abstain from food and drinks. At the close of death, spent a final minutes by
silently repeating the Panchanamaskaramantra
or listening to the chanting of others, and thus faces death by gradual
fasting in meditation.
Conclusion
As
we have highlighted above, it seems that ‘Jainism is primarily an ethical
system of rigorous type demanding radical asceticism from its adherents.’[22]
Many renowned persons and pillars of history have left positive comments on
this religion.[23]
Ahimsa to all creations, love for any being, pure mind are the fundamental
principles with the primary goal of Moksha.
It stands for common brotherhood and unity without any distinction. With all
these teaching and others, it becomes one of the universal religions even till
today.
[1] S.
Gopalan, Outlines of Jainism (Delhi:
Wiley Eastern Limited, 1973), 28.
[2] Arun
Kumar Jain, Faith and Philosophy of
Jainism (Delhi: Kalpaz Publications, 2009), 97.
[3] Ibid., 97-98.
[4] S.
Gopalan, op. cit., 21.
[5] P.S. Daniel, “The Jaina Religious Tradition” in P.S.
Daniel, David C. Scott and G.R. Singh, eds., Religious Traditions of India (Delhi: ISPCK, 1988), 177. See also
Dr. T. Vanlaltlani & Rev. Dr. V.S. Lalrinawma, Sakhaw Hrang Hrang Chanchin, 3rd Edition (Aizawl: ATC,
2005), 58-60; and Rodinmawia Ralte, India
Rama Sakhaw Lian Zualte (Serkawn: Communication Dept. of BCM, 1997), 124.
[6]
P.S. Daniel, op. cit., 178-179.
[7]
Arun Kumar Jain, op. cit., 102-103.
[8]
P.S. Daniel, op. cit., 179.
[9]
Ibid.
[10]
Arun Kumar Jain, op. cit., 100.
[11] Mainly based on P.S. Daniel, op. cit., 187-190.
[12]
Mainly based on P.S. Daniel, op. cit.,
190-191.
[13] P.C. Nahar
and K.C. Ghosh, An Enclyclopaedia of
Jainism, Reprint Edition (Delhi: Indian Books Centre, 1996), 671.
[14]
P.S. Daniel, op. cit., 192-193. See
also Arun Kumar Jain, op. cit.,
251-258.
[15]
Arun Kumar Jain, op. cit., 231-233,
257-258.
[16]
P.S. Daniel, op. cit., 193-194.
[17]
Arun Kumar Jain, op. cit., 261.
[18]
P.S. Daniel, op. cit., 194.
[19]
P.C. Nahar and K.C. Ghosh, op. cit., 680-689.
See also P.S. Daniel, op. cit., 194;
and Arun Kumar Jain, op. cit., 271.
[20]
P.S. Daniel, op. cit., 194.
[21]
Mainly based on Ibid., 195.
[22]
Ibid., 195.
[23]
Arun Kumar Jain, op. cit., 303-307.
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